Rising Sea Levels

One of the most significant challenges related to global climate change is rising sea levels. Since the beginning of the 20th-century, sea levels have gradually risen by 16 - 21 cm (6.3 - 8.3 in).

The rise in sea levels has also accelerated over time due to thermal expansion (the change in the volume and area of matter due to increased temperatures) and the melting of ice sheets and arctic glaciers.

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Researchers have calculated that arctic sea ice has declined by 10% in the last 10 years. In addition to rising sea levels, this has altered the circulation of the Atlantic Ocean, destroying fisheries in northern countries and creating massive storms and hurricanes.

Coastlines around the world remain susceptible to flooding. Some at-risk coasts include the Miami shore, Rio de Janeiro, Osaka and Shanghai. The Egyptian city, Alexandria, faces a particular threat as much of its population exists in low lying coastal areas, which will likely be inundated within the next decade.

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Our best hope for limiting the increase in sea levels is to reduce our carbon footprint. Initiatives in renewable energy and efficient power are critical components in reaching our emission goals.

For images of climate science and rising sea levels, click the links above. For information on how you can help deduce our carbon emissions head to the Environmental Defense Fund. (www.edf.org)

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Origins of Modern Chemistry

How did we get from discovering fire to using nanotubes in labs?

The concept of atoms was first conceived in ancient Greece by a group of philosophers known as the atomists. In 330 BC, Aristotle opposed this theory. He was a proponent of the elemental theory, positing that all matter was composed of the elements earth, fire, water, and air. He even added an element, aether (or ether).

The elemental theory continued into the middle ages through the study of alchemy. Alchemists added sulfur, salt, and mercury to the list.

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Finally, in 1661, Robert Boyle published the book "The Sceptical Chymist", presenting his hypothesis of particles in motion and asserting that only experiments using the "scientific method" could be considered true.

Another milestone in chemistry was the discovery of electrochemistry. Alessandro Volta invented the first battery in 1800, using piles of copper and zinc discs. They were separated by cloth soaked in brine. When wires were attached to the top and bottom, electricity flowed through the wires.

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Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier established the Law of the Conservation of Mass, also called "Lavoisier's Law", in 1789. His book "Elementary Treatise of Chemistry" is considered the first modern chemistry textbook. It contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, including oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, and sulfur.

Lavoisier, unfortunately, lost his head to the guillotine during the French Revolution, but not before beginning his own revolution in science and becoming the father of modern chemistry.

History of Flight: From Kites to Space Travel

There are over 100,000 airplane flights a day, with almost 10,000 planes in the air simultaneously. It's taken humanity thousands of years to get to this point, starting with the invention of the humble kite in China in 475 BC.

The popularity of kite flying in China began people thinking about making human flight a reality. Soaring through the air untethered to the ground. Before, it has been the realm of mythology, such as Icarus, Alexander the Great, and Pegasus.

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On the way, there were many failed attempts over the centuries. At first, many inventors tried to replicate the wings of birds, even using feathers or lightweight wood. But, a human's arm muscles are not like a bird's.

Leonardo DaVinci made over 100 drawings of his theories of flight and flying machines. None of which were built in his lifetime.

It took until 1783, Paris, France before man reached this goal. Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes flew in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers.

Balloon travel brought us blimps, zeppelins, and airships. Over time the hot air balloon was refined and morphed by inventors, eventually bringing us to gliders. This development brought us a big step closer to a true airplane. George Cayley designed version of a glider that use the movements of the human body to control it.

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Samuel Langley, who was the Smithsonian Institute Secretary came close to unmanned flight in 1891. He built a model called the Aerodrome, which was powered by a steam engine. It flew for 3/4 of a mile. But, when he scaled it up to fit a person, it never flew successfully. After one test flight over the Potomac River, a journalist said, " It slid into the water like a handful of mortar."

While Langley was concentrating on propulsion, the Wright Brothers, bicycle mechanics by trade, in Kitty Hawk, NC, were focus on balance. They did their research without the help of a large institution, looking into the history of flight so far, and building models and even a wind tunnel.

Finally, on December 17, 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright successfully flew the first powered aircraft. Their plane flew 852 feet. In another 11 years, the first scheduled commercial flight took off, transporting people between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida.

Planes become critical during WWI. The Germans used airplanes such as the Fokker Eindecker as well as Zeppelins to drop bombs on the allies.

In 1927 Lindbergh completed the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. Eventually, commercial air travel would become commonplace.

Today gigantic cargo planes with wingspans of 290 feet can carry 640 tons.

Humans are never satisfied, so we keep pushing flight further. First to land on the moon and who knows where we'll travel next.

Vaccines: How They Protect Us

Although vaccination has been a hot topic in recent news, the study of vaccination goes back to around 1,000 years ago. Early records of smallpox immunization, called variolation, can be dated back to 1000 CE in China.

Variolation was a practice that involved taking material (usually part of a scab) from a patient that was infected with smallpox and exposing a healthy individual to this material. The doctor would often insert the infected material underneath the healthy person’s skin to achieve proper exposure. The hope was that the healthy person would get sick, their immune system would successfully fight the virus, and they would then be immune to the disease once they recovered. Not surprisingly, some patients died from an intentional infection of smallpox, but the ones that did survive were indeed immune to future infections.

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Luckily, we have since discovered a less risky method of immunization, but the general concept is similar. The body is exposed to the germs of a virus to elicit an immune response, which is a fight from the immune system to attack the organisms, kill them, and protect the body from being infected. If the body is exposed later on to the same virus in its active form, the immune system recognizes it and knows how to fight it off. But instead of using full-force, potent forms of the virus, we now use killed or weakened germs from a virus to provoke an immune response.

Physicians use attenuated (weakened or altered) forms of the virus because they signal the immune system to learn how to fight the disease without hurting the body. The ‘germs’ they use in the vaccination are samples of microbes or proteins that make up the virus.

Through all of the research and discoveries surrounding vaccines, we’ve been able to prevent a long list of diseases, such as cervical cancer, measles, hepatitis B, whooping cough, pneumonia, mumps, and polio.

Recent outbreaks of measles have occurred in the US and Europe in insular communities where groups of people resist vaccination. The CDC confirms 880 cases of measles occurring across the US this year, the greatest number of cases reported since the disease was declared eliminated in 2000.

Historically, the link between outbreaks of diseases and a concentrated lack of vaccinations holds true. Both Britain and Japan developed anti-vaccination trends in the 1970s, mostly caused by skepticism about the whooping cough (pertussis) vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that 100,000 children were infected with whooping cough in Britain and 38 died. In Japan, the number of infected individuals went from 393 cases to 13,000 cases, and the number of deaths went from 0 to 41.

With such a long history, vaccines continue to shape the knowledge we have about our bodies, immune systems, and how easily viruses and bacteria can affect our health.

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• npr.org
• who.int
• historyofvaccines.org
• cdc.gov

Acute Flaccid Myelitis, a Growing Concern for Parents

Flu season is here, but parents have a new condition to be worried about for their kids: Acute Flaccid Myelitis, or AFM. It has been making headlines as alarming numbers of children are being paralyzed in a pattern that resembles polio scares in the past.

AFM has been in existence for a long time, but the recent rise in cases is what’s signaling danger. Polio was eradicated in the United States in 1979, however, at this point in time, there is no such future hope for AFM.

This dreaded condition has several possible causes including viruses, environmental toxins, and genetic disorders. Symptoms often follow an infection and high fever. The suspected viruses that may cause AFM include poliovirus or non-polio enteroviruses, West Nile Virus and adenoviruses.

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Although adults may contract this condition, most cases are in those under 18 years old. Symptoms parents should look out for include the sudden onset of drooping eyelids, difficulty moving the eyes, loss of reflexes or weakness in the limbs.

One of the more dangerous aspects of this condition is when the muscles of the lungs are affected, causing respiratory distress. Medical help should be sought immediately upon finding any of these or similar symptoms.

Scans, such as MRIs, of the spinal cord and brain will assist in the diagnosis of AFM. It is important to rule out other conditions such as Guillain-Barre that may have similar symptoms.

We currently do not have a specific treatment for AFM, but neurologists and physical therapists can sometimes recommend methods to help relieve symptoms.

The best prevention is common sense advice that would help to avoid any type of infection. Wash your hands frequently with soap and hot water to avoid germs from others, and wear insect repellent to avoid mosquito bites that may transmit the West Nile Virus.

The Heartbreak of Psoriatic Arthritis, Seriously

"The Heartbreak of Psoriasis" has long been a punchline in the media, used in a quirky 1960's TV commercial, an avant-garde play, and even a hit song.

But, having psoriasis, and especially psoriatic arthritis is serious. Psoriasis is a non-contagious condition related to immune system function and often runs in families. There is no cure, and the itching, cracked, bleeding skin and embarrassing silvery thick scales brings anguish to those who are afflicted. It can range from the occasional small patch with years of remission to a lifelong full-body debilitating condition.

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Patients with psoriasis are more likely to have other health issues as well. These include an increased prevalence and risk of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. Also, a common ophthalmic disease in these patients is uveitis.

Ointments and creams are a helpful treatment for those with mild to moderate psoriasis, but, there has been little help for patients with 10% - 100% of their skin affected. Now a handful of immunosuppressant and biologic drugs offer miraculous relief.

Unfortunately, these effective drugs do come with side effects including an increased risk of cancer, tuberculosis, kidney problems and susceptibility to life-threatening infections.

Some patients prefer exploring alternative treatments. These range from doctor-approved treatments such as phototherapy with UV lights, pine tar derived formulas and weight loss, to more questionable 'cures' such as swimming in the Dead Sea, smearing yourself with vegetable shortening or megadosing on zinc tablets. A popular ancient treatment was a concoction of onions, sea salt, and urine.
Avoiding triggers such as stress, citrus, red wine, processed meats, gluten, dairy, and others may help some. These do not work for everyone and require self-experimentation over months or years to see results.

No matter how mild or severe your psoriasis, there is a large psychological toll. Cyndi Lauper, Kim Kardashian, Art Garfunkel, LeAnn Rimes and other celebrities who speak openly about their battle with psoriasis bring a positive life outlook to sufferers.

Along with continuing medical research, the future holds promise for those with psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.

National Psoriasis Foundation

A small percentage of psoriasis patients develop psoriatic arthritis, which painfully swells the joints, deteriorates bones and eventually deforms hands, feet, and the spine to crippling degrees. This spinal condition is called ankylosing spondylitis.

• psoriasis,org
• psoriasis severity, psoriasis.com
• Mayo Clinic Staff, Psoriasis diagnosis and treatment, mayoclinic.org
• Psoriasis Hall of Shame, pinch.com