The History of Christmas

As people put up Christmas trees and decorate their homes, it’s easy to believe these traditions have been around since the year one, but Christmas and the holidays surrounding December 25th have taken many forms.

The origin of Christmas comes from three sources: it is the date of the winter solstice on the Roman calendar, it is about nine months from the vernal equinox (March 25th) and it is the date set for the birth of Christ.

Before Christendom the Roman Empire celebrated Saturnalia, a holiday honoring the Roman god, Saturn, the farther of Jupiter. During Saturnalia social customs were flipped upside down. Slaves ate at their master’s tables, women flirted with men and gambling was permitted. Saturnalia also involved public banquets and gift giving, which may have influenced later Christian traditions. There were even reports of naked caroling!

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The Christmas tree has its origins in 16th century Germany. While writing a sermon at night in a starry evergreen forest, the Protestant Christian reformer, Martin Luther, is said to have added lighted candles to a tree and put it into his house. Other Protestant Germans brought similar trees into their homes and the tradition spread. By the second half of the 19th century, the tradition had moved beyond Germany, first among the upper classes and eventually into lower areas of society.

While you are making your shopping rounds this holiday season, attending religious services or making time to be with family, reflect on the long history behind the season. Be sure to also check out great holiday gifts below and click the links above to see more historical images of the origins of Christmas.

From all of us from Science Source Merry Christmas and Happy Holidays!

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Rising Sea Levels

One of the most significant challenges related to global climate change is rising sea levels. Since the beginning of the 20th-century, sea levels have gradually risen by 16 - 21 cm (6.3 - 8.3 in).

The rise in sea levels has also accelerated over time due to thermal expansion (the change in the volume and area of matter due to increased temperatures) and the melting of ice sheets and arctic glaciers.

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Researchers have calculated that arctic sea ice has declined by 10% in the last 10 years. In addition to rising sea levels, this has altered the circulation of the Atlantic Ocean, destroying fisheries in northern countries and creating massive storms and hurricanes.

Coastlines around the world remain susceptible to flooding. Some at-risk coasts include the Miami shore, Rio de Janeiro, Osaka and Shanghai. The Egyptian city, Alexandria, faces a particular threat as much of its population exists in low lying coastal areas, which will likely be inundated within the next decade.

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Our best hope for limiting the increase in sea levels is to reduce our carbon footprint. Initiatives in renewable energy and efficient power are critical components in reaching our emission goals.

For images of climate science and rising sea levels, click the links above. For information on how you can help deduce our carbon emissions head to the Environmental Defense Fund. (www.edf.org)

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Plastic is Deadly

Young Northern Fur Seal tangled in a nylon rope and dragging nets, cables, and fishing wires, doomed to die of hunger.

While plastic items in our daily lives are designed for one-time use, they have a long life span, usually up to 1,000 years.

Plastic is also deadly. People consume thousands of plastic articles each year, which damage our health, especially our immune systems. Plastic particles are even in the air we breathe, floating in the remotest places from fields to mountains.

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For many animals plastic is lethal. Sea birds get caught in plastic fishing line and starve to death. Small mammals choke and die in 6-pack plastic rings. Dolphins and whales swallow plastic particles that block up their bodily systems. Sea turtles suffocate in plastic bags and floating debris prevents them from surfacing for air.

Luckily, as awareness grows, people are working to clean up plastic in the environment. New types of safe, biodegradable plastic are also coming on the market. We have a very long road ahead, but with more awareness and countries working towards a common goal, we have a more hopeful future.

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Endangered Animals

Species around the world are facing extinction from threats ranging from ivory poaching to global climate change. Organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund have responded to the crisis with far-reaching conservation efforts.

The black rhinoceros has long been a victim of poaching for the international trade in rhino horn. British colonists began hunting rhinos in Africa during the colonial era and poaching has continued to this day. Conservationists work to protect rhino populations by building conservations and training local rangers to fend off poachers, but victories are hard fought. The black rhino’s population has sunk to 2,300 in recent years.

The polar bear has risen to public awareness due to the impact of climate change on the Arctic. Since 1979 the volume of sea ice shrunk by 80%, dramatically reducing the polar bear’s natural habitat. Experts say that the population of polar bears decreased to 20,000 to 25,000 in the last decade, classifying them a ‘vulnerable’ species. Conservationists work with businesses and governments to support green energy initiatives and help mitigate climate change.

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It is worth noting that animals that enter the endangered species list do not always stay there. Famously, the American buffalo was reduced to near extinction following the American expansion into the western frontier but conservation efforts have increased their numbers gradually throughout the 20th century.

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Likewise, the giant panda faced extinction a decade ago but has recently made gains due to protected habitats in China. Another encouraging story comes from the Siberian tiger, which was reduced to double digits in the early 1900s but has since increased to about 500.

While species around the world become endangered, conservationists continue to fight for their survival. Find out how you can help by visiting the World Wildlife Fund below. For a full gallery of endangered species follow the link and be sure to check out our storefront for great animal gifts.

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Immunotherapy: Your Immune System is Cancer's Biggest Enemy

There’s no doubt about it - our immune systems are powerful. We’ve all had moments where we don’t pay much attention to our immune systems because of lack of sleep or high stress and had to endure bouts of sneezing, coughing, or fever in the coming days. Some of us have taken extra steps to make sure our immune systems are as strong as possible and noticed how invincible it feels to go months without getting sick. Everyday function, brain power, and physical ability depend strongly on our body’s ability to fight off viruses and disease.

The power that our immune system provides in determining our health can even be utilized to fight cancer. Immunotherapy is a method of cancer treatment that helps to strengthen the immune system to be able to fight cancer cells better, as well as direct the immune system towards specific cancer cells.

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A large number of cells in our body aid in the immune system. White blood cells (lymphocytes) recognize foreign bodies such as viruses and fight them with antibodies, which are proteins that are sent out to bind to these foreign bodies. T cells are a specific type of white blood cell that search for, capture and destroys foreign bodies and infected cells.

Immunotherapy works with these cell types to focus in on cancer cells and kill as many as possible. There are many different methods of immunotherapy that enhance the immune system in a variety of ways.

Proteins called monoclonal antibodies (therapeutic antibodies) can be created in a laboratory and used for immunotherapy. These antibodies are introduced into the body to flag cancer cells so the immune system can more easily detect them.

Checkpoint inhibitors can be put into a patient’s bloodstream to disable proteins that stop the immune system from attacking cancer cells. These proteins attach to T cells, and can activate or deactivate the immune system when needed. Because cancer cells can pose as normal cells and pass a T cell checkpoint without any activation of the immune system, checkpoint inhibitors are used to make sure that T cells will be activated to help destroy cancer cells with each encounter.

Adoptive cell transfer is a form of therapy that can also help boost the function of T cells. In this method, T cells are taken from the body, and the cells that are most defensive are grown and multiplied in a lab and put back into the body intravenously.

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Through the technology that scientists now have available in labs, immunotherapy provides another option for cancer treatment which can give many patients more hope. Although this type of therapy has its own side effects, and sometimes has the potential to damage the body, it has been known to successfully treat some cancers when radiation or chemotherapy failed, and can also enhance the effectiveness of other methods of treatment when used in combination.

Overall, it has the potential to provide hope to many of millions of people around the world affected by cancer.

• livescience.com
• cancer.gov
• immunology.org
• pacificimmunology.com
• tcells.org

Origins of Modern Chemistry

How did we get from discovering fire to using nanotubes in labs?

The concept of atoms was first conceived in ancient Greece by a group of philosophers known as the atomists. In 330 BC, Aristotle opposed this theory. He was a proponent of the elemental theory, positing that all matter was composed of the elements earth, fire, water, and air. He even added an element, aether (or ether).

The elemental theory continued into the middle ages through the study of alchemy. Alchemists added sulfur, salt, and mercury to the list.

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Finally, in 1661, Robert Boyle published the book "The Sceptical Chymist", presenting his hypothesis of particles in motion and asserting that only experiments using the "scientific method" could be considered true.

Another milestone in chemistry was the discovery of electrochemistry. Alessandro Volta invented the first battery in 1800, using piles of copper and zinc discs. They were separated by cloth soaked in brine. When wires were attached to the top and bottom, electricity flowed through the wires.

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Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier established the Law of the Conservation of Mass, also called "Lavoisier's Law", in 1789. His book "Elementary Treatise of Chemistry" is considered the first modern chemistry textbook. It contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, including oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, mercury, zinc, and sulfur.

Lavoisier, unfortunately, lost his head to the guillotine during the French Revolution, but not before beginning his own revolution in science and becoming the father of modern chemistry.

History of Flight: From Kites to Space Travel

There are over 100,000 airplane flights a day, with almost 10,000 planes in the air simultaneously. It's taken humanity thousands of years to get to this point, starting with the invention of the humble kite in China in 475 BC.

The popularity of kite flying in China began people thinking about making human flight a reality. Soaring through the air untethered to the ground. Before, it has been the realm of mythology, such as Icarus, Alexander the Great, and Pegasus.

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On the way, there were many failed attempts over the centuries. At first, many inventors tried to replicate the wings of birds, even using feathers or lightweight wood. But, a human's arm muscles are not like a bird's.

Leonardo DaVinci made over 100 drawings of his theories of flight and flying machines. None of which were built in his lifetime.

It took until 1783, Paris, France before man reached this goal. Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes flew in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers.

Balloon travel brought us blimps, zeppelins, and airships. Over time the hot air balloon was refined and morphed by inventors, eventually bringing us to gliders. This development brought us a big step closer to a true airplane. George Cayley designed version of a glider that use the movements of the human body to control it.

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Samuel Langley, who was the Smithsonian Institute Secretary came close to unmanned flight in 1891. He built a model called the Aerodrome, which was powered by a steam engine. It flew for 3/4 of a mile. But, when he scaled it up to fit a person, it never flew successfully. After one test flight over the Potomac River, a journalist said, " It slid into the water like a handful of mortar."

While Langley was concentrating on propulsion, the Wright Brothers, bicycle mechanics by trade, in Kitty Hawk, NC, were focus on balance. They did their research without the help of a large institution, looking into the history of flight so far, and building models and even a wind tunnel.

Finally, on December 17, 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright successfully flew the first powered aircraft. Their plane flew 852 feet. In another 11 years, the first scheduled commercial flight took off, transporting people between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida.

Planes become critical during WWI. The Germans used airplanes such as the Fokker Eindecker as well as Zeppelins to drop bombs on the allies.

In 1927 Lindbergh completed the first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. Eventually, commercial air travel would become commonplace.

Today gigantic cargo planes with wingspans of 290 feet can carry 640 tons.

Humans are never satisfied, so we keep pushing flight further. First to land on the moon and who knows where we'll travel next.

Vaccines: How They Protect Us

Although vaccination has been a hot topic in recent news, the study of vaccination goes back to around 1,000 years ago. Early records of smallpox immunization, called variolation, can be dated back to 1000 CE in China.

Variolation was a practice that involved taking material (usually part of a scab) from a patient that was infected with smallpox and exposing a healthy individual to this material. The doctor would often insert the infected material underneath the healthy person’s skin to achieve proper exposure. The hope was that the healthy person would get sick, their immune system would successfully fight the virus, and they would then be immune to the disease once they recovered. Not surprisingly, some patients died from an intentional infection of smallpox, but the ones that did survive were indeed immune to future infections.

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Luckily, we have since discovered a less risky method of immunization, but the general concept is similar. The body is exposed to the germs of a virus to elicit an immune response, which is a fight from the immune system to attack the organisms, kill them, and protect the body from being infected. If the body is exposed later on to the same virus in its active form, the immune system recognizes it and knows how to fight it off. But instead of using full-force, potent forms of the virus, we now use killed or weakened germs from a virus to provoke an immune response.

Physicians use attenuated (weakened or altered) forms of the virus because they signal the immune system to learn how to fight the disease without hurting the body. The ‘germs’ they use in the vaccination are samples of microbes or proteins that make up the virus.

Through all of the research and discoveries surrounding vaccines, we’ve been able to prevent a long list of diseases, such as cervical cancer, measles, hepatitis B, whooping cough, pneumonia, mumps, and polio.

Recent outbreaks of measles have occurred in the US and Europe in insular communities where groups of people resist vaccination. The CDC confirms 880 cases of measles occurring across the US this year, the greatest number of cases reported since the disease was declared eliminated in 2000.

Historically, the link between outbreaks of diseases and a concentrated lack of vaccinations holds true. Both Britain and Japan developed anti-vaccination trends in the 1970s, mostly caused by skepticism about the whooping cough (pertussis) vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that 100,000 children were infected with whooping cough in Britain and 38 died. In Japan, the number of infected individuals went from 393 cases to 13,000 cases, and the number of deaths went from 0 to 41.

With such a long history, vaccines continue to shape the knowledge we have about our bodies, immune systems, and how easily viruses and bacteria can affect our health.

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• npr.org
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Concussions and the Future of Contact Sports

Injuries are the last thing one thinks of on game day but they’re an inevitable part of professional sports and they’re shaping what athletics will look like in the future.

Concussions are one of the biggest threats to professional athletes today. Repeated concussions can lead to memory loss, personality changes, depression, and anxiety. After suffering one concussion a person is more likely to suffer a second one, and the effects become more severe. Multiple concussions can increase the risk of Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and CTE.

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a brain disorder that occurs after repeated head injuries. Symptoms include memory loss, impaired judgment, aggression, depression, and suicidal thoughts. In one famous case, Aaron Hernandez, a young professional football player, committed suicide in prison without knowing he had the disease.

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A number of sports have changed their rules to prevent head injuries. The NFL, for instance, has moved kickoffs from the 30-yard line to the 35-yard line to reduce the speed players reach before colliding with each other. The NFL will also now penalize a player who lowers his head to make contact with his helmet against an opponent.

Professional boxing and MMA (mixed martial arts) have outlawed strikes to the back of the head, or ‘rabbit punches’. The weight of fighters’ gloves has also changed over the years to control the damage of punches and protect the hands. Larger boxers generally wear heavier gloves, but it is still unclear how much the weight of gloves mitigates the impact of punches.

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As rules and regulations change, the future of contact sports remains unclear. For now, anyone participating in contact sports should wear proper safety gear and maintain industry standards.

For a full gallery of sports injuries check the link above and for great sports gifts head to our storefront below.

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How 3D Medical Animation is Changing the Way We Learn

Many of us remember taking biology and anatomy courses in high school or college. We would peer into our textbooks and try to soak in the labels attached to an illustration of an animal cell. Some of us were lucky enough to crowd around a model of a skeleton at the front of the class and watch the instructor point out important anatomical landmarks.

Those of us who were able to observe a physical model of a biological structure may have noticed that it was much easier to retain information if we could see a 360-degree view of the object. If we could hold it in our hands, turn it around to look at the front and back, and maybe take different pieces of the model apart, we were able to interact with the structure enough to feel more familiar with how it looked and what the nomenclature was.

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Unfortunately, it is nearly impossible for a classroom to have physical models of every scientific topic that needs to be learned. However, the birth of 3D animation has made it possible for us to watch countless structures move, be taken apart, and rotate 360-degrees.

3D animations are composed of 3D models, which in the most basic terms are digital sculptures, that are manipulated and moved around throughout the course of the video. Surprisingly, the process used to make 3D models is just as mathematical as it is design-oriented. An artist is essentially creating instructions for a computer to follow in order to create the model, thus equations and geometry are taken into account to ensure that the computer is able to process the object without experiencing glitches.

Because these models are crafted to represent 3D objects or a 3D terrain, they open up the doors to a digital world that mimics the physical world we live in. 3D medical animation can exhibit clinically accurate surgeries, obscure biological processes, and isolated molecules or anatomical parts.

Instead of staring at a book and reading complicated descriptions about how our bodies work, viewers with access to computers can now watch different parts of the brain light up in glowing colors in order to learn the nomenclature, or observe the motion of glucose molecules as they interact with other structures to pass through a cell membrane.

Studies show that if viewers can be presented with learning material that connects with their creative side, the lesson will not only grab more of the audience’s attention, but will allow the audience to retain the information better because they are having fun watching the video as more active participants.

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Businesses surrounding 3D animation have been responding in parallel to these communication benefits. The Market Research Gazette reports that the market has been projected to grow by 20.8% from 2016 to 2021.

As medical animation becomes more popular and receives more funding, animations will become more accessible to more learners worldwide, which will create a brighter future for our students and our healthcare.

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• amarketresearchgazette.com
• baltimorepostexaminer.com
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NASA and the Space Age

In 1957, an amazing spectacle appeared in the North American night sky – Sputnik, the first satellite to enter Earth’s orbit. The USSR had successfully sent a rocket into outer space, thus beginning the space race, an event which would last a decade and challenge the best and brightest of two nations.

In response to Sputnik, President Dwight D. Eisenhower created NASA, the first American administration for space exploration in 1958. With Project Mercury, NASA attempted to make the first manned mission into space but failed to beat the Russians, who sent Yuri Gagarin into orbit in 1961. A month later Alan Shepard became the first American in space and John Glenn followed soon after, orbiting the Earth three times in 1962.

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In the Sixties, NASA entered a new era. With the cold war raging and the threat of nuclear armament on the horizon, President John F Kennedy vowed to redouble NASA’s efforts and put an American on the moon by the end of the decade. In 1965, NASA began the Spacelab project, sending the first space station into Earth’s orbit. Despite sustaining damage during take off, the station was repaired in space and orbited the Earth until 1979.

The success of Spacelab led to NASA’s famous Apollo missions to the moon. After many failed attempts, Apollo 8 became the first shuttle to circle the moon in 1968. The following year, the USSR accomplished its first moon tour, leaving the space race at a stalemate.

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With the cold war raging in the east, astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong of Apollo 11 successfully landed on the moon in 1969. The mission effectively ended the space race and cemented America’s place as the world leader in space exploration. Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong became national heroes and were awarded the Presidential Metal of Freedom later that year.

Since then, NASA has continued its exploration of space sending probes to every planet in our solar system, including the dwarf planet, Pluto. It also landed four rovers on Mars, the last of which, Curiosity, is still collecting data from its craters today.

The recent image of a black hole in the M87 galaxy is more proof of human potential in space exploration. For the Space Age to advance, we must continue NASA’s legacy into the future. For more astronomy images check out the gallery above, and for unique astronomy gifts check out our store front below.

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